Coffee (Coffea spp.)

About

What it is and where it shows up.

Coffee is a widely consumed beverage and flavouring ingredient derived from the roasted seeds (beans) of plants in the genus Coffea, primarily Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora (robusta). It is used as a beverage, as a natural flavouring in confectionery and processed foods, and as a functional ingredient valued for its stimulant (caffeine) and antioxidant properties.

Safety summary

The regulatory and scientific consensus.

Coffee is broadly recognized as safe for healthy adults in moderate consumption; EFSA (2015) established that single doses of caffeine up to 200 mg (~3 mg/kg bw) and habitual daily intake up to 400 mg from all sources do not raise safety concerns for non-pregnant healthy adults. In 2016, IARC upgraded coffee from Group 2B to Group 3 (not classifiable as to carcinogenicity), finding no conclusive carcinogenic evidence for coffee itself, though drinking very hot beverages (>65 °C) remains classified Group 2A (probably carcinogenic) due to oesophageal cancer risk independent of the beverage type. Sensitive populations include pregnant women (recommended caffeine limit 200 mg/day), children, and individuals with cardiovascular conditions or anxiety disorders; coffee also contains trace acrylamide from roasting, which triggered a California Prop 65 warning, though population-level epidemiological evidence for harm at typical dietary doses remains insufficient.

Regulatory landscape

What food-safety regulators have decided.

Jurisdiction	Status	Note
FDA (Food and Drug Administration) (United States)	Restricted	California Proposition 65: coffee roasting produces acrylamide (a Prop 65-listed probable carcinogen, IARC Group 2A), which triggered a state-level cancer warning requirement. Sub-national ruling — California only; FDA and mainstream scientific consensus consider dietary acrylamide in coffee unlikely to cause cancer in humans at typical consumption levels.source
EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) (European Union)	Approved	Coffee as a whole food is not restricted in the EU. The 400 mg/day figure refers to the safe habitual daily caffeine intake from all dietary sources (including coffee) for healthy non-pregnant adults, as established by EFSA's 2015 Scientific Opinion on caffeine (EFSA Journal 2015;13(5):4102). Single doses up to 200 mg (~3 mg/kg bw) do not raise safety concerns. Pregnant women: limit of 200 mg caffeine/day. Children and adolescents: 3 mg/kg bw/day. Coffee itself is freely permitted under EU food law (Regulation EC 178/2002).source
FSSAI (Food Safety and Standards Authority of India) (India)	Approved	Coffee is regulated under the Food Safety and Standards (Food Products Standards and Food Additives) Regulations. Standards are defined for roasted coffee, roasted and ground coffee, and instant coffee including moisture, chicory blending limits, and labelling requirements. No specific ADI established for coffee as a whole food.source

Who should approach with care

Whose guidance would steer them away.

Pregnancy — EFSA (2015) recommends pregnant women limit caffeine from all sources, including coffee, to 200 mg/day due to concerns about adverse effects on fetal growth and development.

Lactation — Caffeine from coffee passes into breast milk; while low-to-moderate intake is generally tolerated, high consumption may cause irritability and disrupted sleep in breastfed infants.

Infants — Caffeine metabolism is severely limited in newborns and infants, making any caffeine-containing beverage including coffee inappropriate for this age group.

Children — EFSA established a safe daily caffeine limit of 3 mg/kg bw/day for children and adolescents; regular coffee intake can easily exceed this threshold and may adversely affect the developing central nervous system.

Hypertension — Research cited in EFSA's 2015 opinion indicates greater coffee intake in men is associated with steeper age-related increases in blood pressure, warranting caution for individuals with hypertension.

Research citations

The sources behind this verdict.

1FDA. Substances Added to Food (formerly EAFUS): coffee extract (Coffea spp.). hfpappexternal.fda.gov
2PubMed. Coffee Is Not a Carcinogen, 2018. pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
3IARC. IARC Monographs Volume 116: Evaluation of Drinking Coffee, Maté, and Very Hot Beverages — General Remarks (NCBI Bookshelf), 2018. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
4IARC. Carcinogenicity of drinking coffee, maté, and very hot beverages — IARC Monographs Volume 116, 2016. iarc.who.int
5EFSA. Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine, 2015. efsa.europa.eu

Independently researched5 citations